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The trans-Atlantic human trade encompassed 2 million Africans who perished during the brutal Middle Passage crossings and 10 million who survived to build the Americas. Drawing from SlaveVoyages and other scholarly sources, this Open Tour provides information about their voyages and arrivals.

Africans reached the Americas by many routes, creating strong connections between the places where they embarked and disembarked. An interactive Google Map shows all documented arrival sites on the mainland U.S. and its territories and can provide directions to locations.

This video provides a 3-D animation of L'Aurore, a French vessel that transported captive Africans to the Americas in 1719.

One of many arrival sites is Kittery, where children, women, and men who\nsurvived the Middle Passage first landed after being forcibly and\npermanently removed from Africa. The collection of Middle Passage Marker Open Tours commemorates their lives by providing digital markers to complement physical markers and ancestral remembrance ceremonies.

","flat_pages",[],"id",43,"is_geo",true,"link_address","link_text","map_icon","map_overlay","map_type","hybrid","media",[182,183],"meta_description","The trans-Atlantic human trade encompassed 2 million Africans who perished during the brutal Middle Passage crossings and 10 million who survived to build the Americas. Drawing from SlaveVoyages and other scholarly sources, this Open Tour provides information about their voyages and arrivals. Africans reached the Americas by many routes, creating strong connections between the places where they embarked and disembarked. An interactive Google Map shows all documented arrival sites on the mainland U. S. and its territories and can provide directions to locations. This video provides a 3-D animation of L'Aurore, a French vessel that transported captive Africans to the Americas in 1719.One of many arrival sites is Kittery, where children, women, and men who\nsurvived the Middle Passage first landed after being forcibly and\npermanently removed from Africa. The collection of Middle Passage Marker Open Tours commemorates their lives by providing digital markers to complement physical markers and ancestral remembrance ceremonies. ","mode",{"_33":172,"_70":173},"modes",[167,168,169,170],"open_geographies_endpoint","published","published_on","2026-08-23","read_duration"," reading","restrict_bounds","restrict_bounds_to_overlay","sanitized_description","splash",{"_70":102,"_115":165,"_117":166},"slug","slugs",[162,163,164,16],"stop_count","stops",[82],"tenant_title","Middle Passage Markers","title","Maine: Trans-Atlantic Voyages of Captive Africans to Kittery","travel_duration"," walking","theme",{"_33":80,"_70":81},"type","voice_overs",[],"use_directions",11,"emory",{"_83":-5,"_84":23,"_85":-5,"_86":87,"_88":89,"_90":-5,"_29":91,"_92":-5,"_93":-5,"_94":95,"_33":96,"_97":98,"_99":100,"_39":-5,"_43":101,"_45":102,"_103":25,"_104":-5,"_105":-5,"_52":36,"_59":106,"_62":107,"_63":108,"_60":109,"_70":110,"_76":111,"_112":-5,"_113":-5,"_77":114},"next","position","previous","relation_id",130,"address","Kittery, ME, USA","article_link","Kittery, Maine is located on the north side of the Piscataqua River across from Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The Isles of Shoals lies a short distance offshore to the south. Situated along the coast, Kittery was positioned within early Atlantic commercial networks linking Europe, the Caribbean, and other North American colonies. Maine’s maritime economy—including fishing, shipbuilding, provisioning, crewing, and financing voyages—supplied the vessels, materials, and labor that powered the trafficking of Africans.

When Europeans arrived, the Abenaki inhabited the Piscataqua River watershed and surrounding coast as part of N’Dakinna, their broader sovereign homeland extending across much of present-day New England and parts of eastern Canada. They maintained deep connections to the region’s rivers, forests, and coasts through fishing, hunting, agriculture, and trade. Beginning in the early 1600s, contact with European fishermen and traders introduced epidemic diseases. By 1618, an estimated 95% of Indigenous people had died in an area that extended as far north to the Kennebunk River and as far south as Cape Cod. This devastating population loss left the region vulnerable to English colonization.

In 1623, English colonists established outposts along the Piscataqua River, including sites near present-day Portsmouth and Dover, New Hampshire. Economic activity centered on Atlantic fishing, the fur trade, and timber extraction tied to shipbuilding. In 1639, English colonist Ferdinando Gorges received a royal charter granting him authority over the Province of Maine, and Kittery was incorporated in 1647 as one of the earliest English towns in the region.

By the mid-1600s, enslaved Africans were present in New England, arriving through trade networks linking the Caribbean, Africa, and English colonies. Many entered through ports such as Boston, Newport, and Portsmouth before being transported to smaller settlements, including those in Maine.

The Massachusetts Bay Colony extended its jurisdiction over much of Maine in the mid-1650s, including the Piscataqua region, where slavery developed under Massachusetts law. The Body of Liberties permitted slavery under specific conditions, stating that bondage was lawful for captives taken in just wars and for “strangers” who sold themselves or were sold to others. The provision was subsequently applied to both Indigenous and African people, providing a legal basis for enslavement even when those being sold had not consented to their enslavement.

By the early 1700s, as settlement in the Piscataqua region increased, enslaved labor became embedded in household, agricultural, and maritime economies. In Kittery, as many as 1 in 5 households held an enslaved person. Prominent merchant families such as the Pepperrells built wealth through fishing, shipping, and the sale and labor of enslaved Africans. In 1719, Sir William Pepperrell financed a voyage to bring five Africans he had purchased from the Caribbean island of Antigua to Kittery Point. A letter to William Pepperrell explains that four of them died during the voyage to Kittery and the fifth died shortly after arrival. Beyond financing that voyage, Pepperrell also purchased enslaved people directly. Like many New England settlers, William Pepperrell built his early fortune through the fisheries, curing and exporting cod from the Isles of Shoals, including low-grade fish shipped to the Caribbean to provision enslaved plantation laborers. The Pepperrells and other wealthy merchants in the Piscataqua region expanded their Caribbean trade, exchanging fish and other provisions for rum, molasses, and other goods. Their commercial networks also connected New England to the trade in enslaved people.

Historical records based on estimates drawn from surviving documents such as church records, tax lists, and wills reflect that at least 500 Black people—most enslaved at some point—lived in the Parish of Kittery from the 1640s through the 1770s, which included present-day Eliot and the Berwicks. In Kittery, enslaved Black people labored in households, on small farms, in trades, and in maritime industries; in some cases, they held skilled cultural and medical roles. Both free and enslaved Black residents were members of Kittery’s First Congregational Church, where they were required to sit in segregated sections. Many of those enslaved in Kittery were children. New England enslavers frequently sought out children, believing they could be more easily trained to fit the needs of a particular household or trade.

Enslaved Africans reached Kittery through the Caribbean and directly from Africa. In June 1752, the Betsey arrived in Kittery from the Coast of Guinea “with a Quantity of very likely Boys and Girls of the blackest Sort” to be sold locally. This language reflected the belief that darker skin signaled unmixed African origin and recent arrival from Africa. Enslavers used these descriptions to suggest that such people were more removed from colonial society, less likely to be mistaken as free, and therefore less likely to escape by passing as white or free. The word “likely,” meaning healthy or strong in this context, promoted them as a reliable investment.

Kittery was both a point of arrival and departure within the human trade. Vessels built in the Piscataqua region transported small numbers of captives from Kittery to ports in the Caribbean and mainland North America. Among these were: the Molly (1757, owned by William Pepperrell Sparhawk, grandson of the aforementioned William Pepperrell) to North Carolina; the Betsey (1767) to North Carolina; and the Richard (1757) to St. Kitts. These vessels carried only one to three captives with cargo, suggesting personal use rather than for commercial trade. North Carolina relied on such small-scale intercolonial shipments rather than direct arrivals from Africa. For Kittery’s merchants, trafficking enslaved people was part of their everyday commercial networks.

Although slavery and human trafficking were integral to Massachusetts’s economy, its colonial legislators intermittently attempted to control the trade. From the early 1700s through the American Revolution, Massachusetts (which then included Maine) periodically enacted measures to discourage or tax the importation of enslaved people, including a 1705 duty law. These efforts were uneven and often constrained by colonial governance and imperial oversight. Enslaved people in Massachusetts and Maine resisted bondage in many ways, including escape, wage negotiation, self-purchase, and legal petitions. During the Revolutionary War, some Black men secured freedom through military service.

After the Revolution, slavery declined gradually in Massachusetts and the District of Maine through a combination of legal developments, shifting economic practices, and changing political ideals. The 1780 Massachusetts Constitution declared that “all men are born free and equal,” and the 1783 Quock Walker decisions ended legal slavery in Massachusetts, including Maine. However, some enslavers delayed or resisted manumission.

Even after abolition, Maine remained economically tied to slavery. Merchants and shipowners connected to Maine continued selling Africans in the illicit Atlantic trade into the 1800s. Because ship manifests were not standard practice in the early colonial period and many records were lost in a Portland fire, the full extent of direct arrivals from Africa to colonial Maine is unknown. Of 70 documented vessels constructed in or crewed by people from Maine that engaged in slaving voyages between 1757 and 1862, roughly 90% operated after state and federal prohibitions had taken effect. Many of these vessels transported African captives to Cuba, Jamaica, and Brazil. One notable case involved Nathaniel Gordon of Portland, who was executed in 1862 after trafficking nearly 900 Africans aboard the Erie. He was the only American ever sentenced to death for participating in the illegal trans-Atlantic human trade.

In an effort to maintain political balance in Congress, Maine became a state in 1820 as part of the Missouri Compromise, which paired its entry as a free state with Missouri’s admission as a state where slavery was legal. Despite this designation, Maine’s economy remained deeply connected to goods produced by enslaved labor. Maine-built vessels transported cotton from southern plantations to textile mills in Britain and New England, including those in cities such as Portland and Lewiston, north of Kittery. They also transported sugar and molasses from the Caribbean, and towns in Maine distilled imported molasses into rum. Maine’s timber industry also supplied lumber for shipbuilding, structures and fencing on plantations, barrels for sugar and molasses, and packing materials for cotton bales.

Seeking economic opportunity and maritime employment, Black Mainers migrated between coastal towns and Canadian provinces such as Nova Scotia from the 1780s through the mid-1800s. Black communities developed across Maine, including Peterborough (in present-day Warren), Kennebunk, Portland, Bangor, and other coastal and inland towns, with many finding work in seafaring and shipbuilding. By the late 1800s, a small multiracial fishing community lived on Malaga Island in Phippsburg (a town northeast of Kittery). Families of Black, white, and mixed ancestry supported themselves through fishing and other forms of coastal labor until 1912, when Maine officials displaced residents and institutionalized some after labeling the community “undesirable.”

Today, organizations like The Prince Project and Atlantic Black Box continue to research and document the history of slavery and its legacies in Maine. The Prince Project’s database documents nearly 2,000 enslaved people who lived in Maine before 1800. For primary and secondary sources on Kittery and the broader history of the trans-Atlantic human trade, see the accompanying annotated bibliography.

Thank you for taking this Open Tour of the Trans-Atlantic Voyages of Captive Africans to Kittery. The Middle Passage Markers Open Tour collection provides historical information about other arrival locations. Directions to other sites can be obtained through an interactive Google Map. After visiting Kittery, you may consider taking the Open Tour of Portsmouth, New Hampshire.\n

","direction_intro","direction_notes","icon_color","#06ebef",100,"lat",43.0875776,"lng",-70.74965279999999,[121,122],"","orphaned","parking_lat","parking_lng","Kittery, Maine is located on the north side of the Piscataqua River across from Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The Isles of Shoals lies a short distance offshore to the south. Situated along the coast, Kittery was positioned within early Atlantic commercial networks linking Europe, the Caribbean, and other North American colonies. Maine’s maritime economy—including fishing, shipbuilding, provisioning, crewing, and financing voyages—supplied the vessels, materials, and labor that powered the trafficking of Africans. When Europeans arrived, the Abenaki inhabited the Piscataqua River watershed and surrounding coast as part of N’Dakinna, their broader sovereign homeland extending across much of present-day New England and parts of eastern Canada. They maintained deep connections to the region’s rivers, forests, and coasts through fishing, hunting, agriculture, and trade. Beginning in the early 1600s, contact with European fishermen and traders introduced epidemic diseases. By 1618, an estimated 95% of Indigenous people had died in an area that extended as far north to the Kennebunk River and as far south as Cape Cod. This devastating population loss left the region vulnerable to English colonization. In 1623, English colonists established outposts along the Piscataqua River, including sites near present-day Portsmouth and Dover, New Hampshire. Economic activity centered on Atlantic fishing, the fur trade, and timber extraction tied to shipbuilding. In 1639, English colonist Ferdinando Gorges received a royal charter granting him authority over the Province of Maine, and Kittery was incorporated in 1647 as one of the earliest English towns in the region. By the mid-1600s, enslaved Africans were present in New England, arriving through trade networks linking the Caribbean, Africa, and English colonies. Many entered through ports such as Boston, Newport, and Portsmouth before being transported to smaller settlements, including those in Maine. The Massachusetts Bay Colony extended its jurisdiction over much of Maine in the mid-1650s, including the Piscataqua region, where slavery developed under Massachusetts law. The Body of Liberties permitted slavery under specific conditions, stating that bondage was lawful for captives taken in just wars and for “strangers” who sold themselves or were sold to others. The provision was subsequently applied to both Indigenous and African people, providing a legal basis for enslavement even when those being sold had not consented to their enslavement. By the early 1700s, as settlement in the Piscataqua region increased, enslaved labor became embedded in household, agricultural, and maritime economies. In Kittery, as many as 1 in 5 households held an enslaved person. Prominent merchant families such as the Pepperrells built wealth through fishing, shipping, and the sale and labor of enslaved Africans. In 1719, Sir William Pepperrell financed a voyage to bring five Africans he had purchased from the Caribbean island of Antigua to Kittery Point. A letter to William Pepperrell explains that four of them died during the voyage to Kittery and the fifth died shortly after arrival. Beyond financing that voyage, Pepperrell also purchased enslaved people directly. Like many New England settlers, William Pepperrell built his early fortune through the fisheries, curing and exporting cod from the Isles of Shoals, including low-grade fish shipped to the Caribbean to provision enslaved plantation laborers. The Pepperrells and other wealthy merchants in the Piscataqua region expanded their Caribbean trade, exchanging fish and other provisions for rum, molasses, and other goods. Their commercial networks also connected New England to the trade in enslaved people. Historical records based on estimates drawn from surviving documents such as church records, tax lists, and wills reflect that at least 500 Black people—most enslaved at some point—lived in the Parish of Kittery from the 1640s through the 1770s, which included present-day Eliot and the Berwicks. In Kittery, enslaved Black people labored in households, on small farms, in trades, and in maritime industries; in some cases, they held skilled cultural and medical roles. Both free and enslaved Black residents were members of Kittery’s First Congregational Church, where they were required to sit in segregated sections. Many of those enslaved in Kittery were children. New England enslavers frequently sought out children, believing they could be more easily trained to fit the needs of a particular household or trade. Enslaved Africans reached Kittery through the Caribbean and directly from Africa. In June 1752, the Betsey arrived in Kittery from the Coast of Guinea “with a Quantity of very likely Boys and Girls of the blackest Sort” to be sold locally. This language reflected the belief that darker skin signaled unmixed African origin and recent arrival from Africa. Enslavers used these descriptions to suggest that such people were more removed from colonial society, less likely to be mistaken as free, and therefore less likely to escape by passing as white or free. The word “likely,” meaning healthy or strong in this context, promoted them as a reliable investment. Kittery was both a point of arrival and departure within the human trade. Vessels built in the Piscataqua region transported small numbers of captives from Kittery to ports in the Caribbean and mainland North America. Among these were: the Molly (1757, owned by William Pepperrell Sparhawk, grandson of the aforementioned William Pepperrell) to North Carolina; the Betsey (1767) to North Carolina; and the Richard (1757) to St. Kitts. These vessels carried only one to three captives with cargo, suggesting personal use rather than for commercial trade. North Carolina relied on such small-scale intercolonial shipments rather than direct arrivals from Africa. For Kittery’s merchants, trafficking enslaved people was part of their everyday commercial networks. Although slavery and human trafficking were integral to Massachusetts’s economy, its colonial legislators intermittently attempted to control the trade. From the early 1700s through the American Revolution, Massachusetts (which then included Maine) periodically enacted measures to discourage or tax the importation of enslaved people, including a 1705 duty law. These efforts were uneven and often constrained by colonial governance and imperial oversight. Enslaved people in Massachusetts and Maine resisted bondage in many ways, including escape, wage negotiation, self-purchase, and legal petitions. During the Revolutionary War, some Black men secured freedom through military service. After the Revolution, slavery declined gradually in Massachusetts and the District of Maine through a combination of legal developments, shifting economic practices, and changing political ideals. The 1780 Massachusetts Constitution declared that “all men are born free and equal,” and the 1783 Quock Walker decisions ended legal slavery in Massachusetts, including Maine. However, some enslavers delayed or resisted manumission. Even after abolition, Maine remained economically tied to slavery. Merchants and shipowners connected to Maine continued selling Africans in the illicit Atlantic trade into the 1800s. Because ship manifests were not standard practice in the early colonial period and many records were lost in a Portland fire, the full extent of direct arrivals from Africa to colonial Maine is unknown. Of 70 documented vessels constructed in or crewed by people from Maine that engaged in slaving voyages between 1757 and 1862, roughly 90% operated after state and federal prohibitions had taken effect. Many of these vessels transported African captives to Cuba, Jamaica, and Brazil. One notable case involved Nathaniel Gordon of Portland, who was executed in 1862 after trafficking nearly 900 Africans aboard the Erie. He was the only American ever sentenced to death for participating in the illegal trans-Atlantic human trade. In an effort to maintain political balance in Congress, Maine became a state in 1820 as part of the Missouri Compromise, which paired its entry as a free state with Missouri’s admission as a state where slavery was legal. Despite this designation, Maine’s economy remained deeply connected to goods produced by enslaved labor. Maine-built vessels transported cotton from southern plantations to textile mills in Britain and New England, including those in cities such as Portland and Lewiston, north of Kittery. They also transported sugar and molasses from the Caribbean, and towns in Maine distilled imported molasses into rum. Maine’s timber industry also supplied lumber for shipbuilding, structures and fencing on plantations, barrels for sugar and molasses, and packing materials for cotton bales. Seeking economic opportunity and maritime employment, Black Mainers migrated between coastal towns and Canadian provinces such as Nova Scotia from the 1780s through the mid-1800s. Black communities developed across Maine, including Peterborough (in present-day Warren), Kennebunk, Portland, Bangor, and other coastal and inland towns, with many finding work in seafaring and shipbuilding. By the late 1800s, a small multiracial fishing community lived on Malaga Island in Phippsburg (a town northeast of Kittery). Families of Black, white, and mixed ancestry supported themselves through fishing and other forms of coastal labor until 1912, when Maine officials displaced residents and institutionalized some after labeling the community “undesirable.” Today, organizations like The Prince Project and Atlantic Black Box continue to research and document the history of slavery and its legacies in Maine. The Prince Project’s database documents nearly 2,000 enslaved people who lived in Maine before 1800. For primary and secondary sources on Kittery and the broader history of the trans-Atlantic human trade, see the accompanying annotated bibliography. Thank you for taking this Open Tour of the Trans-Atlantic Voyages of Captive Africans to Kittery. The Middle Passage Markers Open Tour collection provides historical information about other arrival locations. Directions to other sites can be obtained through an interactive Google Map. After visiting Kittery, you may consider taking the Open Tour of Portsmouth, New Hampshire.\n","kittery-where-captive-africans-disembarked",[119,120,107],{"_70":102,"_115":116,"_117":118},"Kittery, Where Captive Africans Disembarked","stop","video_embed","video_poster",[],"caption","Detail of \"A Map of the most Inhabited part of New England,\" by Thomas Jefferys, 1776. Courtesy of the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection, https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~1910~120089:kittery?annotId=301910278.","url","https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2Fayrx3gtdo2fdg24u6jmd5h13fppe?variant=desktop","new-stop-1787439601356","kittery-where-captive-africans-disemberk",{"_86":153,"_84":154,"_115":116,"_125":126,"_127":-5,"_128":-5,"_129":155,"_131":156,"_33":157,"_134":135,"_136":137,"_138":-5,"_139":-5,"_140":141,"_70":102,"_142":-5},{"_86":123,"_84":23,"_115":124,"_125":126,"_127":-5,"_128":-5,"_129":130,"_131":132,"_33":133,"_134":135,"_136":137,"_138":-5,"_139":-5,"_140":141,"_70":102,"_142":-5},386,"Source: Elizabeth Donnan, ed., Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America, Volume III: New England and the Middle Colonies (Washington: Carnegie Institution, 1932). https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000010378523&seq=86&q1=kittery","desktop_width",750,"embed","embed_id","filename","ME_Kittery_1752_Betsey_Arrival.jpg","files",{"_143":144,"_145":146,"_147":148,"_149":150,"_151":152},495,"lqip_width",50,"mobile_width",300,"original_image","provider","tablet_width",400,"video","original","https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2F2zqfmrdzuo9pcf15lc8opo14izld","mobile","https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2F2zqfmrdzuo9pcf15lc8opo14izld?variant=mobile","tablet","https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2F2zqfmrdzuo9pcf15lc8opo14izld?variant=tablet","desktop","https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2F2zqfmrdzuo9pcf15lc8opo14izld?variant=desktop","lqip","https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2F2zqfmrdzuo9pcf15lc8opo14izld?variant=lqip",383,0,"ME_Kittery_1776_Map_Star.jpg",{"_143":158,"_145":159,"_147":160,"_149":118,"_151":161},492,"https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2Fayrx3gtdo2fdg24u6jmd5h13fppe","https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2Fayrx3gtdo2fdg24u6jmd5h13fppe?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2Fayrx3gtdo2fdg24u6jmd5h13fppe?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2Fayrx3gtdo2fdg24u6jmd5h13fppe?variant=lqip","new-tour-1716645381388","maine","maine-trans-atlantic-voyages-of-captive-africans-to","Detail of “Östliches Nordamerica” by Heinrich Kiepert, 1885. Map Courtesy of the David Rumsey Historical Map Collection, https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~367185~90134439:-Kittery,-KITTERY-?annotId=491029745#.","https://api.opentour.site/middle-passage-markers/v4/public/media/middle-passage-markers%2Fylc44xa4twxay89j7y6wxwtzf51n?variant=desktop",{"_86":180,"_33":23,"_70":181},{"_86":177,"_33":178,"_70":179},{"_86":174,"_33":175,"_70":176},{"_86":171,"_33":172,"_70":173},172,4,"WALKING",171,3,"TRANSIT",170,2,"DRIVING",169,"BICYCLING",{"_86":195,"_84":23,"_115":165,"_125":126,"_127":-5,"_128":-5,"_129":196,"_131":197,"_33":198,"_134":135,"_136":137,"_138":-5,"_139":-5,"_140":141,"_70":102,"_142":-5},{"_86":184,"_84":178,"_115":185,"_125":126,"_127":-5,"_128":-5,"_129":186,"_131":187,"_33":188,"_134":135,"_136":137,"_138":-5,"_139":-5,"_140":141,"_70":189,"_142":-5},223,"Map by David Eltis and David Richardson. Courtesy of SlaveVoyages, https://www.slavevoyages.org/blog/volume-and-direction-trans-atlantic-slave-trade.\n“This map summarizes and combines the many different paths by which captives left Africa and reached the Americas. While there were strong connections between particular embarkation and disembarkation regions, it was also the case that captives from any of the major regions of Africa could disembark in almost any of the major regions of the Americas. Even captives leaving Southeast Africa, the region most remote from the Americas, could disembark in mainland North America, as well as the Caribbean and South America. The data in this map are based on estimates of the total slave trade rather than documented departures and arrivals.”","Map_Slave_Voyages.jpg",{"_143":190,"_145":191,"_147":192,"_149":193,"_151":194},491,"Volume and direction of the trans-Atlantic human trade from Africa to the 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